Earth:Puchuldiza

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Puchuldiza
Géiser en Puchuldiza, Región de Tarapacá, norte de Chile.jpg
A geyser. Puchuldiza, Tarapacá Region.
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LocationTarapacá Region, Chile
CoordinatesTemplate:Coord/display/intitle, inline
Part ofCentral Volcanic Zone of the Andes
Elevation4,200 metres (13,780 ft)
Area1 square kilometre (250 acres)
GeologyGeothermal field

Puchuldiza is a geothermal field in the Tarapacá Region of Chile . It is part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes, close to the active volcano Isluga and several older volcanoes in the neighbourhood; the most recent activity from one of the neighbouring volcanoes was 900,000 ± 300,000 years ago. Geothermal features include geysers and hot springs. Puchuldiza has been inspected for the possibility that it may be suitable as a source for geothermal energy.

Context

On the western margin of South America, the Peru-Chile Trench separates the South America Plate from the plates of the Pacific Ocean and marks the site where these plates subduct beneath South America.[1] The subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South America Plate causes the volcanic phenomena of the Central Volcanic Zone as well as geothermal phenomena in northern Chile such as at El Tatio, Puchuldiza and Surire.[2]

The region contains ignimbrites and other volcanic rocks that were erupted during the Miocene to Pleistocene overlying earlier sediments and volcanites; these deposits appear to contain the hydrothermal systems.[3] Geothermal phenomena are widespread and occur in the form of fumaroles, geysers, hot springs and mud pools.[4][5]

The field

Puchuldiza is in the Tarapacá Region of Chile [6] at an elevation of 4,200 metres (13,800 ft)[7]-4,300 metres (14,100 ft) above sea level in a wide valley,[8] and is subdivided into the 1 square kilometre (0.39 sq mi) Puchuldiza proper and the 0.15 square kilometres (0.058 sq mi) Tuja field 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) farther northwest.[9] The field is characterized by hot springs and fumaroles, which release hot fluids on the banks of the Puchuldiza River;[10] in total there are over a hundred separate manifestations.[11] Temperatures reach 40–84 °C (104–183 °F).[8] Other minor geothermal manifestations and one hydrothermally altered area also occur.[12]

A weather station is located at Puchuldiza.[13] The towns of Los Baños de Puchuldiza and Tuja lie in the area,[6] and the active volcano Isluga 27 kilometres (17 mi) northeast of Puchuldiza.[9] Iquique is located 150 kilometres (93 mi) southwest from the field[14] and the international road between Iquique in Chile and Oruro in Bolivia passes close to the field, which is thus easily accessible.[8]

Geology

It lies within a tectonic graben that was formed by Quaternary fault activity. This fault activity has pulled the crust apart, forming depressions which are known as grabens and which collect geothermal waters.[4] Further, the vents occur on the intersections between the faults.[10] A number of ignimbrites crop out in the region and were deformed after emplacement, forming folds. In addition, Pliocene-Pleistocene stratovolcanoes are found at Puchuldiza,[15] including Cerro Natividad, Cerro Condoriri,[16] Guaillane and Latarani-Macurquima.[6] One lava dome of Latarani was active 900,000 ± 300,000 years ago and may thus be linked to the ongoing geothermal activity,[17] and seismic activity in the area may be related either to local faults or to the geothermal field.[18]

Spring deposits and fumarole gases

Temperatures documented in the field exceed 200–205 °C (392–401 °F),[14] although the temperatures of the reservoirs were estimated to be about 136–176 °C (277–349 °F).[19] Total heatflow was estimated to be about 33 megawatt.[20] The water is rich in salts, most importantly sodium chloride.[21] These waters appear to originate in a deep aquifer within andesite rocks,[20] and is mostly of meteoric origin.[17] The Tuja field may be directly fed by geothermal energy, and the Puchuldiza indirectly by steam.[22] Hydrothermal alteration is widespread in the rocks of the field and has generated deposits of pyrite[23] and sinter,[6] the latter up to 25 metres (82 ft) thick[5] and forming bot digit-like and node-like shapes.[11] Opal and halite deposits form in discharge channels.[24] Landforms at Pioneer Mound close to Home Plate on the planet Mars have been compared to the landforms of Puchuldiza.[25]

Along with water, the geothermal springs release various gases. Their dominant component is carbon dioxide; secondary components are hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide, methane and nitrogen.[21] The presence of argon and oxygen in the gases is due to the influence of atmospheric gases in the formation of the gases.[26] Arsenic, a toxic element, occurs in the sinter precipitates of Puchuldiza[27] and in the spring waters, with concentrations exceeding 10 milligrams per litre (3.6×10−7 lb/cu in).[28] Boron, which is toxic to plants, is also found.[29]

Energy production

Northern Chile has been investigated for its potential to generate geothermal energy, partly because there are few other energy sources in this region.[30] Exploratory drilling occurred on two fields in northern Chile, El Tatio and Puchuldiza.[31]

In the case of Puchuldiza, drilling in six exploratory wells extended to depths of 1,150 metres (3,770 ft)[10] between 1974 and 1980,[32] and revealed a potential for power generation of 120–180 megawatt[33] or 30-190 megawatt.[34] In 1978, an experimental geothermal power plant yielded an output of 10 kilowatt; this was the first electricity generated by geothermal energy in South America.[35] However in 1982 it was found that the flow rates at Puchuldiza were not sufficient to justify a geothermal project.[10] Interest in geothermal power development resurged beginning in 2000, and between 2006-2008 two companies obtained concessions to exploit geothermal power at Puchuldiza[36] but (As of 2016) there was no known progress on exploitation in the area.[37] The production of boric acid from the hydrothermal brines has also been investigated.[38]

Other uses

The Baños de Puchuldiza are an important tourist attraction. Fountaining water coming from an abandoned well freezes during cold weather, forming conspicuous ice formations.[39] Inhabitants in the area raised concerns that mines were overusing the water that feeds the geysers, damaging them in the process.[40]

References

  1. ↑ Lahsen 1988, p. 402.
  2. ↑ Tassi et al. 2009, p. 1.
  3. ↑ Tassi et al. 2009, pp. 1,2.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Lahsen 1988, p. 403.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Sanchez-Yanez, Camilo; Reich, Martin; Leisen, Mathieu; Morata, Diego; Barra, Fernando (1 May 2017). "Geochemistry of metals and metalloids in siliceous sinter deposits: Implications for elemental partitioning into silica phases" (in en). Applied Geochemistry 80: 113. doi:10.1016/j.apgeochem.2017.03.008. ISSN 0883-2927. Bibcode: 2017ApGC...80..112S. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0883292716303936. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Cortés et al. 2009, p. 1.
  7. ↑ Aguilera et al. 2006, p. 583.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Bona & Coviello 2016, p. 49.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Tassi et al. 2010, p. 2.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 Los Alamos 1987, p. 247.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Ruff et al. 2019, p. 481.
  12. ↑ Sierra, Sebastian (23 November 2018). "Zonas de alteración y geoquímica de aguas del área Puchuldiza-Tuja-Cerro Blanco" (in es). Congreso Geológico Chileno, 15. Concepción, Chile. p. 984. https://biblioteca.sernageomin.cl/opac/datafiles/15785_p_0984.pdf. 
  13. ↑ Arenas H., Alejandro (2014) (in es). Investigación y análisis de los mecanismos de recarga de la Pampa del Tamarugal. (Report). p. 90. http://bibliotecadigital.ciren.cl//handle/123456789/32706. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Trujillo, P. R. (1978). "The Puchuldiza geothermal field". Alternative Energy Sources 6: 2611–2621. Bibcode: 1978aes.....6.2611T. 
  15. ↑ Lahsen 1976, p. 115.
  16. ↑ Lahsen 1976, p. 116.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Cortés et al. 2009, p. 2.
  18. ↑ Pritchard, M.E.; Henderson, S.T.; Jay, J.A.; Soler, V.; Krzesni, D.A.; Button, N.E.; Welch, M.D.; Semple, A.G. et al. (June 2014). "Reconnaissance earthquake studies at nine volcanic areas of the central Andes with coincident satellite thermal and InSAR observations" (in en). Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 280: 96. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2014.05.004. ISSN 0377-0273. Bibcode: 2014JVGR..280...90P. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0377027314001395. 
  19. ↑ Aguilera et al. 2006, p. 585.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 "Geochemistry of the Puchuldiza and Tuja hot springs, Chile" (in en-NZ). National Library of New Zealand. 1980-01-01. http://natlib.govt.nz/records/31146649?search%5Bi%5D%5Bsubject%5D=GEOCHEMISTRY&search%5Bil%5D%5Bcollection%5D=STIX+Database&search%5Bil%5D%5Bprimary_collection%5D=findNZarticles&search%5Bil%5D%5Bsubject%5D=CHEMICAL+ANALYSIS&search%5Bpath%5D=items. 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Tassi et al. 2009, p. 2.
  22. ↑ Tassi et al. 2010, p. 13.
  23. ↑ Lahsen 1976, pp. 108,109.
  24. ↑ Ruff et al. 2019, p. 482.
  25. ↑ Ruff et al. 2019, p. 490.
  26. ↑ Aguilera et al. 2006, p. 584.
  27. ↑ Carvajal, Mario A. (2019). Alaniz, Alberto J.. ed. Chile : Environmental History, Perspectives and Challenges. New York. p. 255. ISBN 978-1-5361-5666-9. OCLC 1124389274. https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1124389274. 
  28. ↑ Tapia, J.; Murray, J.; Ormachea, M.; Tirado, N.; Nordstrom, D.K. (August 2019). "Origin, distribution, and geochemistry of arsenic in the Altiplano-Puna plateau of Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, and Perú" (in en). Science of the Total Environment 678: 315. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.04.084. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 31075598. Bibcode: 2019ScTEn.678..309T. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969719316043. 
  29. ↑ SAG (Chile); Ambiente, Universidad de Chile Departamento de Ingeniería Civil División de Recursos Hídricos y Medio; Sancha F., Ana María (March 2005) (in es). Criterios de calidad de aguas o efluentes tratados para uso en riego : informe final. (Report). http://bibliotecadigital.ciren.cl//handle/123456789/31537. 
  30. ↑ Lahsen 1988, p. 401.
  31. ↑ Los Alamos 1987, p. 45.
  32. ↑ Bona & Coviello 2016, p. 42.
  33. ↑ Dickson, Mary H.; Fanelli, Mario (1988-01-01). "Geothermal R&D in developing countries: Africa, Asia and the Americas". Geothermics 17 (5): 873. doi:10.1016/0375-6505(88)90039-9. 
  34. ↑ Bona & Coviello 2016, p. 47.
  35. ↑ TRUJILLO, P.; BRAVO, R.; SOLAR, T. (1979). The Geothermal Power Plant of Puchuldiza, Chile, I. Region (Report). p. 279. "In this way Chile has been the first country in South America that has produced electricity by using the geothermal resources" 
  36. ↑ Bona & Coviello 2016, p. 50.
  37. ↑ Bona & Coviello 2016, p. 51.
  38. ↑ Goldberg, Valentin (2021). "The potential of raw material extraction from thermal brines–Successful milestones of the BrineMine project". Oil Gas European Magazine 1: 29. 
  39. ↑ Bona & Coviello 2016, pp. 49-50.
  40. ↑ Miranda, Sergio Gonzalez (2004). "Mirando a la Pachamama: globalizacion y territorio en el Tarapacá andino." (in es). Territorios (12). https://revistas.urosario.edu.co/index.php/territorios/article/view/882. 

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External links



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