Chemistry:Red meat

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Short description: Meat which is red when raw, with high myoglobin content
Thinly sliced raw beef is red.
Roast beef is a darker brown color.

In gastronomy, red meat is commonly red when raw (and a dark color after it is cooked), in contrast to white meat, which is pale in color before (and after) cooking.[1][2] In culinary terms, only flesh from mammals or fowl (not fish) is classified as red or white.[3][4] In nutritional science, red meat is defined as any meat that has more of the protein myoglobin than white meat. White meat is defined as non-dark meat from fish or chicken (excluding the leg or thigh, which is called dark meat).

Definition

Concentration of myoglobin by percentage of mass
Name Myoglobin USDA category
Old beef 1.50 – 2.00%[5] Red meat[6]
Beef 0.40 – 1.00%[5] Red meat[6]
Pork 0.10 – 0.30%[5] Red meat[6]
Veal 0.10 – 0.30%[5] Red meat[6]
Turkey thigh 0.25 – 0.30%[5] Dark meat
Chicken thigh 0.18 – 0.20%[5] Dark meat
Turkey breast 0.008%[7] White meat
Chicken breast 0.005%[5] White meat[6]
Cooked duck with potatoes, showing the red color of the meat

Under the culinary definition, the meat from adult or "gamey" mammals (for example, beef, horse, mutton, venison, boar, hare) is red meat, while that from young mammals (rabbit, veal, lamb) is white. Poultry is white, excluding certain birds such as ostriches.[8] Most cuts of pork are red, others are white.[9] Game is sometimes put in a separate category altogether. (French: viandes noires — "dark meats".)[4] Some meats (lamb, pork) are classified differently by different writers.

According to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), all meats obtained from mammals (regardless of cut or age) are red meats because they contain more myoglobin, which gives them their red color,[10] than fish or white meat (but not necessarily dark meat)[5] from chicken.[6] [11] Some cuts of pork are considered white under the culinary definition, but all pork is considered red meat in nutritional studies. The National Pork Board has positioned it as "the other white meat", profiting from the ambiguity to suggest that pork has the nutritional properties of white meat, which is considered more healthful.[12][13]

Nutrition

Red meat contains large amounts of iron, creatine, minerals such as zinc and phosphorus, and B-vitamins: (niacin, vitamin B12, thiamin and riboflavin).[14] Red meat is a source of lipoic acid.

Red meat contains small amounts of vitamin D.[15] Offal such as liver contains much higher quantities than other parts of the animal.[16]

In 2011, the USDA launched MyPlate, which did not distinguish between kinds of meat, but did recommend eating at least 8 oz (230 g) of fish each week.[17][18] In 2011, the Harvard School of Public Health launched the Healthy Eating Plate in part because of the perceived inadequacies of the USDA's recommendations.[17] The Healthy Eating Plate encourages consumers to avoid processed meat and limit red meat consumption to twice a week because of links to heart disease, diabetes, and colon cancer. To replace these meats it recommends consuming fish, poultry, beans, or nuts.[17]

Health effects

Overall, diets high in red and processed meats are associated with an increased risk of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer (particularly colorectal cancer), and all-cause mortality.[19][20][21][22] These associations are strongest for processed meat, which is meat that has undergone salting, curing, fermentation, smoking, or other processes to enhance flavor or improve preservation, such as bacon, ham, salami, pepperoni, hot dogs, and some sausages.[23]

A 2021 umbrella review that sees an increase of 11–51% risk of multiple cancer per 100g/d increment of red meat, and an increase of 8-72% risk of multiple cancer per 50g/d increment of processed meat.[24]

A 2022 study challenged the dose-response relationship using a newly developed burden of proof risk function (BPRF). It found weak evidence available regarding whether eating red meat increases the risk of death. The authors conclude that the quality of the available evidence is insufficient to make stronger or more conclusive recommendations regarding the health effects of eating red meat.[25] However the BPRF approach has been criticised for being overly simplistic.[26]

Cancer

The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) of the World Health Organization (WHO) classifies processed meat as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1), based on "sufficient evidence in humans that the consumption of processed meat causes colorectal cancer."[27] Unprocessed red meat is categorised as "probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A), based on limited evidence that the consumption of red meat causes cancer in humans and strong mechanistic evidence supporting a carcinogenic effect."[23][28] Positive associations have also been observed between red meat consumption and increased risks of pancreatic cancer and prostate cancer but the link is not as clear.[23] The American Cancer Society have stated "evidence that red and processed meats increase cancer risk has existed for decades, and many health organizations recommend limiting or avoiding these foods."[29]

The American Institute for Cancer Research, Cancer Research UK and World Cancer Research Fund International have stated there is strong evidence that consumption of processed red meat is a cause of colorectal cancer and there is probable evidence that unprocessed red meat is a cause of cancer.[30][31][32] Put in perspective in the UK, adults eating processed and red meat at 79g per day on average had a 32% increased risk of colorectal cancer compared to those eating less than 11g per day.[33]

A 2023 review found that high consumption of red meat is associated with increased risk of gastrointestinal cancer.[34]

Mechanisms

Heme iron in red meat has been associated with increased colorectal cancer risk.[35] The American Institute for Cancer Research and World Cancer Research Fund have commented that "haem iron, which is present at high levels in red meat, has been shown to promote colorectal tumorigenesis by stimulating the endogenous formation of carcinogenic N-nitroso compound."[36]

Meat with a dark exterior, common in high temperature cooking

A 2017 literature review indicated there are numerous potential carcinogens of colorectal tissue in red meat, particularly those in processed red meat products, such as N-nitroso compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and heterocyclic amines (HCAs).[37] Cooking meat with "high-temperature methods, such as pan frying or grilling directly over an open flame", also causes formation of PAHs and HCAs.[38]

Cardiovascular disease and stroke

Red meat consumption is associated with an increased risk of coronary heart disease, high blood pressure and stroke.[39][40] Factors associated with increased stroke risk from consuming red meat include saturated fats that increase levels of blood cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, and heme iron, which may precipitate atherogenesis in cerebral arteries, leading to stroke.[41]

In 2020, the National Heart Foundation of New Zealand Expert Nutrition Policy (ENP) issued a position statement that concluded that high consumption of red meat increases risk of heart disease and stroke by 16% therefore one should aim to reduce consumption of red meat below 350g per week and replace meat with plant sources of protein.[39][42]

Diabetes

A 2022 umbrella review found that consuming an additional 100g of red meat per day was associated with a 17% increased risk of diabetes.[43] Another review found that red meat consumption is associated with an increased risk of diabetes.[44]

A 2017 review found that daily consumption of 85 grams of red meat and 35 grams of processed red meat products by European and American consumers increased their risk of type 2 diabetes by 18–36%, while a diet of abstinence of red meat consuming whole grains, vegetables, fruits, and dairy was associated with an 81% reduced risk of diabetes.[45] One study estimated that "substitutions of one serving of nuts, low-fat dairy, and whole grains per day for one serving of red meat per day were associated with a 16–35% lower risk of type 2 diabetes".[46]

A 2023 review found that both processed and unprocessed red meat consumption increase type 2 diabetes risk.[47]

The European Association for the Study of Diabetes recommends people with diabetes to minimise the consumption of red meat.[48]

References

  1. ↑ "Red Meat". thefreedictionary.com. http://www.thefreedictionary.com/red+meat. 
  2. ↑ "White Meat". thefreedictionary.com. http://www.thefreedictionary.com/white+meat. 
  3. ↑ "Color Confusion: Identifying Red Meat and White Meat". Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 2 January 2013. http://www.foodandnutrition.org/January-February-2013/Color-Confusion-Identifying-Red-Meat-and-White-Meat/. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Larousse Gastronomique, first edition
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 "Red Meats: Nutrient Contributions to the Diet". Iowa State Animal Science. September 1990. http://www.anslab.iastate.edu/Class/AnS460-560/Class%20Notes/E-ChemistryofMeatProtein-5.ppt. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 "USDA-Safety of Fresh Pork...from Farm to Table". Fsis.usda.gov. 16 May 2008. http://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/food-safety-education/get-answers/food-safety-fact-sheets/meat-preparation/fresh-pork-from-farm-to-table/CT_Index. 
  7. ↑ Çelen, Mehmet Fatih; Söğüt, Bünyamin; Zorba, Ömer; Demirulus, Hüsrev; Tekeli, Ahmet (August 2016). "Comparison of normal and PSE turkey breast meat for chemical composition, pH, color, myoglobin, and drip loss" (in en). Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia 45: 441–444. doi:10.1590/S1806-92902016000800003. ISSN 1516-3598. http://www.scielo.br/j/rbz/a/xPhkznw5VGbVmyLX6D5bHkD/?lang=en. 
  8. ↑ "Are ratites "red" or "white" meat?". US Department of Agriculture. 17 Jul 2019. https://ask.usda.gov/s/article/Are-ratites-red-or-white-meat. 
  9. ↑ Larousse Gastronomique, 1961, s.v. pork
  10. ↑ "The color of meat depends on myoglobin: Part 1" (in en-us). 2014-10-10. https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/the_color_of_meat_depends_on_myoglobin_part_1. 
  11. ↑ "Red Meat - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/food-science/red-meat#:~:text=%27Red%20meat%27%20is%20usually%20definedparticularly%20turkeys,%20ducks%20and%20geese. 
  12. ↑ Dougherty, Philip H. (15 January 1987). "Dressing Pork for Success". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/1987/01/15/business/advertising-dressing-pork-for-success.html. 
  13. ↑ Hall, Trish (13 November 1991). "And This Little Piggy Is Now on the Menu". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/1991/11/13/garden/and-this-little-piggy-is-now-on-the-menu.html. 
  14. ↑ "Red Meats: Nutrient Contributions to the Diet". Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service. September 1990. http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/library/fntr2/mf974.pdf. 
  15. ↑ "Nutritional composition of red meat". University of Wollongong. September 2007. http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1053&context=hbspapers. 
  16. ↑ "Natural vitamin D content in animal products". Advances in Nutrition 4 (4): 453–62. July 2013. doi:10.3945/an.113.003780. PMID 23858093. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 "Food Pyramids: What Should You Really Eat". Harvard School of Public Health. 2012. http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/pyramid-full-story/index.html. 
  18. ↑ "MyPlate Protein foods". USDA. http://www.choosemyplate.gov/food-groups/protein-foods.html. 
  19. ↑ Abete, Itziar; Romaguera, Dora; Vieira, Ana Rita; Munain, Adolfo Lopez de; Norat, Teresa (September 2014). "Association between total, processed, red and white meat consumption and all-cause, CVD and IHD mortality: a meta-analysis of cohort studies" (in en). British Journal of Nutrition 112 (5): 762–775. doi:10.1017/S000711451400124X. ISSN 0007-1145. PMID 24932617. 
  20. ↑ Neuenschwander, Manuela; Ballon, Aurélie; Weber, Katharina S.; Norat, Teresa; Aune, Dagfinn; Schwingshackl, Lukas; Schlesinger, Sabrina (3 July 2019). "Role of diet in type 2 diabetes incidence: umbrella review of meta-analyses of prospective observational studies" (in en). BMJ 366: l2368. doi:10.1136/bmj.l2368. ISSN 0959-8138. PMID 31270064. PMC 6607211. https://www.bmj.com/content/366/bmj.l2368.long. 
  21. ↑ Mozaffarian, Dariush (12 January 2016). "Dietary and Policy Priorities for Cardiovascular Disease, Diabetes, and Obesity". Circulation 133 (2): 187–225. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.018585. PMID 26746178. 
  22. ↑ Qian, Frank; Riddle, Matthew C.; Wylie-Rosett, Judith; Hu, Frank B. (2020). "Red and Processed Meats and Health Risks: How Strong is the Evidence?". Diabetes Care 43 (2): 265–271. doi:10.2337/dci19-0063. PMID 31959642. PMC 6971786. https://doi.org/10.2337/dci19-0063. 
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 International Agency for Research on Cancer (26 October 2015), IARC Monographs evaluate consumption of red meat and processed meat, https://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2015/pdfs/pr240_E.pdf 
  24. ↑ "Red and processed meat consumption and cancer outcomes: Umbrella review". Food Chem 356: 129697. September 2021. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.129697. PMID 33838606. 
  25. ↑ "Health effects associated with consumption of unprocessed red meat: a Burden of Proof study". Nat Med 28 (10): 2075–2082. October 2022. doi:10.1038/s41591-022-01968-z. PMID 36216940. 
  26. ↑ Lewis, Tanya. "New System Ranks Evidence for Health Risks of Eating Red Meat, Smoking, and More—But Critics Say It's Overly Simplistic" (in en). https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/new-system-ranks-evidence-for-health-risks-of-eating-red-meat-smoking-and-more-but-critics-say-its-overly-simplistic/. 
  27. ↑ "Q&A on the carcinogenicity of the consumption of red meat and processed meat". World Health Organization. 1 October 2015. https://www.who.int/features/qa/cancer-red-meat/en/. 
  28. ↑ "Press release: IARC monographs evaluate consumption of red meat and processed meat". International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization. 15 October 2015. http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2015/pdfs/pr240_E.pdf. 
  29. ↑ Rock, Cheryl L.; Thomson, Cynthia; Gansler, Ted; Gapstur, Susan M.; McCullough, Marjorie L.; Patel, Alpa V.; Andrews, Kimberly S.; Bandera, Elisa V. et al. (2020). "American Cancer Society guideline for diet and physical activity for cancer prevention". CA 70 (4): 245–271. doi:10.3322/caac.21591. PMID 32515498. https://acsjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.3322/caac.21591. 
  30. ↑ "Does eating processed and red meat cause cancer?" (in en). 25 June 2019. https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/diet-and-cancer/does-eating-processed-and-red-meat-cause-cancer. 
  31. ↑ "Red Meat (Beef, Pork, Lamb): Increases Risk of Colorectal Cancer" (in en-US). https://www.aicr.org/cancer-prevention/food-facts/red-meat-beef-pork-lamb/. 
  32. ↑ "Limit red and processed meat" (in en-US). https://www.wcrf.org/diet-activity-and-cancer/cancer-prevention-recommendations/limit-red-and-processed-meat/. 
  33. ↑ "Bacon, salami and sausages: How does processed and red meat cause cancer and how much matters?". news.cancerresearchuk.org. Retrieved June 20, 2023.
  34. ↑ Di, Yan; Ding, Lei; Gao, Luying; Haung, Hongya (2023). "Association of meat consumption with the risk of gastrointestinal cancers: a systematic review and meta-analysis". BMC Cancer 23 (1): 782. doi:10.1186/s12885-023-11218-1. PMID 37612616. PMC 10463360. https://bmccancer.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12885-023-11218-1. 
  35. ↑ Bastide, N. M.; Pierre, F. H.; Corpet, D. E. (2011). "Heme iron from meat and risk of colorectal cancer: a meta-analysis and a review of the mechanisms involved". Cancer Prev. Res. 4 (2): 177–184. doi:10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-10-0113. PMID 21209396. https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/file/index/docid/543808/filename/Bastide-Corpet-CAPR-2010-0113R1-Authors-V.pdf. 
  36. ↑ "Meat, fish and dairy products and the risk of cancer". wcrf.org. Retrieved April 10, 2023.
  37. ↑ "A critical overview on the biological and molecular features of red and processed meat in colorectal carcinogenesis". Journal of Gastroenterology 52 (4): 407–418. April 2017. doi:10.1007/s00535-016-1294-x. PMID 27913919. 
  38. ↑ "Chemicals in Meat Cooked at High Temperatures and Cancer Risk". 2018. http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/cooked-meats. 
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 "Red meat and poultry". assets.heartfoundation.org.nz. Retrieved 25 October 2023.
  40. ↑ "Red/processed meat consumption and noncancer-related outcomes in humans: Umbrella review". Br J Nutr: 1–30. December 2022. doi:10.1017/S0007114522003415. PMID 36545687. 
  41. ↑ "Role of Total, Red, Processed, and White Meat Consumption in Stroke Incidence and Mortality: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies". Journal of the American Heart Association 6 (9): e005983. August 2017. doi:10.1161/jaha.117.005983. PMID 28855166. 
  42. ↑ "Is meat good for you?". heartfoundation.org.nz. Retrieved 25 October 2023.
  43. ↑ Zhang, Xingxia; Liang, Shiqi; Chen, Xinrong; Yang, Jie; Zhou, Yong; Du, Liang; Li, Ka (n.d.). "Red/processed meat consumption and noncancer-related outcomes in humans: Umbrella review" (in en). British Journal of Nutrition: 1–30. doi:10.1017/S0007114522003415. ISSN 0007-1145. PMID 36545687. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/british-journal-of-nutrition/article/redprocessed-meat-consumption-and-noncancerrelated-outcomes-in-humans-umbrella-review/19677742BCB1A4B72127AC25359A7BC2. 
  44. ↑ "Consumption of different animal-based foods and risk of type 2 diabetes: An umbrella review of meta-analyses of prospective studies". Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 191: 110071. September 2022. doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2022.110071. PMID 36067917. 
  45. ↑ "Food groups and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies". European Journal of Epidemiology 32 (5): 363–375. May 2017. doi:10.1007/s10654-017-0246-y. PMID 28397016. 
  46. ↑ "Red meat consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes: 3 cohorts of US adults and an updated meta-analysis". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 94 (4): 1088–96. October 2011. doi:10.3945/ajcn.111.018978. PMID 21831992. 
  47. ↑ Wenming Shi, Xin Huang, C Mary Schooling, Jie V Zhao (2023). "Red meat consumption, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis". European Heart Journal 44 (28): 2626–2635. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehad336. PMID 37264855. https://academic.oup.com/eurheartj/article/44/28/2626/7188739. 
  48. ↑ Reynolds, Andrew; Aas, Anne-Marie; Axelsen, Mette; Churuangsuk, Chaitong (2023). "Evidence-based European recommendations for the dietary management of diabetes". Diabetologia 66 (6): 965-985. doi:10.1007/s00125-023-05894-8. PMID 37069434. 

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