Biology:Mycenastrum

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Short description: Genus of fungi

Mycenastrum
Mycenastrum corium 164174.jpg
Scientific classification e
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Agaricaceae
Genus: Mycenastrum
Desv. (1842)
Type species
Mycenastrum corium
(Guers.) Desv. (1842)
Synonyms[1][2]

Genus

  • Endonevrum Czern. (1845)[3]
  • Pachyderma Schulzer (1876)[4]

Species

  • Lycoperdon corium Guers. (1805)
  • Scleroderma corium (Guers.) A.H.Graves (1830)
  • Sterrebekia corium (Guers.) Fr. (1849)

Mycenastrum is a fungal genus in the family Agaricaceae. The genus is monotypic, containing one widely distributed species, Mycenastrum corium, known by various common names: the giant pasture puffball, leathery puffball, or tough puffball. The roughly spherical to turnip-shaped puffball-like fruit bodies grow to a diameter of 6–24 cm (2–9 in). Initially covered by a thick, felted, whitish layer, the puffballs develop a characteristic checkered skin (peridium) in age. When the internal spore mass, the gleba, is firm and white, the puffball is edible, although some individuals may suffer mild gastrointestinal symptoms after eating it. As the spores mature, the gleba turns first yellowish then purplish brown. Spores are released when the peridium eventually splits open into irregularly shaped sections. Microscopically, the gleba consists of spherical, dark brown spores with rounded bumps on their surfaces, and a capillitium—intricately branched fibers that form long thorn-like spines. The puffball grows on or in the ground in prairie or desert habitats. Although widely distributed, it is not commonly encountered. Mycenastrum corium is a threatened species in Europe.

Taxonomy

The species was originally described in 1805 as Lycoperdon corium in the second volume of Augustin Pyramus de Candolle and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's Flore Française. They attributed authorship to French botanist Louis Ben Guersent, who discovered it in an alfalfa field between the town of La Sotte and Rouen in northern France.[5] Synonyms include Scleroderma corium published by Arthur Harmount Graves in 1830,[6] and Steerbekia corium published by Elias Magnus Fries in 1849.[7] The species was given its current name by Nicaise Auguste Desvaux in 1842, who circumscribed the genus Mycenastrum to contain it.[8] Generic synonyms are Vassiliĭ Matveievitch Czernajew's 1845 Endonevrum and Stephan Schulzer von Müggenburg's 1876 Pachyderma.[1]

In 1948, Sanford Myron Zeller circumscribed the new family Mycenastraceae, containing both Mycenastrum as the type genus, and Bovista.[9] A 2001 molecular study supported the inclusion of Mycenastrum corium in the Lycoperdales, where it was traditionally placed.[10] In a more recent (2008) cladistic analysis, Mycenastrum was shown to be a sister group to the Lycoperdaceae; authors Larsson and Jeppson agreed with Zeller (1949) and Pilat's (1958) decision to regard Mycenastrium as a monotypic genus in the separate family Mycenastraceae.[11] Despite this, several taxonomic authorities prefer to fold Mycenastraceae into the Agaricaceae.[1][12]

It is commonly known as the "leathery puffball",[13] the "tough puffball",[14] or the "giant pasture puffball".[15]

María Homrich & Jorge E. Wright published the variety Mycenastrum corium var. diabolicum in 1973 from South America.[16] M. corium subspecies ferrugineum was described in 2005 from Jefferson County, Colorado, by Orson K. Miller.[17]

Former Mycenastrum

Mycenastrum puffballs that grow underground have a smooth, chocolate-brown coloured surface lacking the patches characteristic of above-ground versions.

Most species historically named as Mycenastrum have since been transferred to other genera, usually Scleroderma, but also Glyptoderma, Bovista, and Gastropila. Many, including those species that have not been reclassified are poorly known; the nomenclatural authority Index Fungorum considers only four of these former Mycenastrum species to be currently valid: Bovista bovistoides, B. lycoperdoides, Gastropila fragilis, and Glyptoderma coelatum.[18]

Name Authority  Year Current name
M. beccarii Pass. 1875 Scleroderma beccarii[19]
M. bovistoides Cooke & Massee[20] 1887 Bovista bovistoides[21]
M. chilense Mont.[22] 1843
M. coelatum Pat.[23] 1899 Glyptoderma coelatum[24]
M. dugesii De Seynes[25] 1886
M. fragile Lév.[26] 1844 Gastropila fragilis[27]
M. leiospermum Mont.[28] 1847
M. leptodermeum Durieu[29] 1848 Scleroderma leptodermeum
M. lycoperdoides Cooke[30] 1884 Bovista lycoperdoides[31]
M. martinicense Pat.[32] 1902 Scleroderma martinicense
M. ohiense Ellis & Morgan[33] 1885 Lycoperdon radicatum
M. olivaceum Cooke & Massee[34] 1887 Scleroderma olivaceum
M. oregonense Ellis & Everh.[33] 1885 Bovista pila
M. phaeotrichum Berk.[35] 1843 Scleroderma phaeotrichum
M. phaeotrichum var. australe Berk.[36] 1845
M. radicatum Durieu[29] 1849 Scleroderma radicatum
M. spinulosum Peck[37] 1881

Description

The characteristic spiny capillitia

The fruit body usually grows to a diameter of 6–15 cm (2–6 in), although extremes of 3 cm (1.2 in)[16] and 27 cm (11 in) have been reported.[38] Its shape ranges from roughly spherical, to obovate (egg-shaped) or pyriform (pear-shaped), sometimes plicate (crumpled, wrinkled) around a somewhat fibrous, persistent tuft of mycelium. The puffball is initially covered by a thick, felted, whitish layer (the exoperidium). This is continuous at first but eventually cracks and peels away in thin flakes, exposing a leathery to corky, nearly smooth, light brown to dark pinkish-brown surface. This tough layer of tissue (the endoperidium) measures about 2 mm thick, encloses the gleba. In maturity, the endoperidium opens by irregular splits that eventually extend towards the base in a star-shaped manner. These torn segments of endoperidium sometimes turn inside out, sometimes drying rigid, exposing a felt-like internal surface. The gleba is white when young and has a cheesy appearance and consistency. As the puffball matures, it undergoes a lytic process involving water loss. Subsequently, the gleba becomes olivaceous, olive-brown, and finally, dark olive when dry, and then develops a characteristic pungent smell.[16] Fruit bodies that grow underground have a conspicuously different morphology–a smooth, chocolate-brown coloured surface that lacks the patches characteristic of above-ground fruit bodies, and their capillitia are bifurcate with stumpy spines.[39] The fungus is edible when the gleba is white.[40] Its odor and taste have been described as pungent or earthy and its taste astringent.[41]

Its spores are spherical, measuring 8–13 µm, and have a surface of irregular, coarse warts.[42] The capillitium refers to late-maturing, thick-walled cells in the gleba. The main axes of these branched cells are 20–30 µm thick, and they are covered with numerous spines.[43]

Mycenastrum corium subsp. ferrugineum has a deep rusty red to reddish orange gleba, clearly distinguishing it from the glebal coloring of the main subspecies.[17] M. corium var. diabolicum has an extremely spiny capillitium.[16]

Uses

The puffball is edible when the gleba is still firm and white.[15] They are reportedly consumed by the tribal people of Madhya Pradesh.[44] In Mexico, a large collection was consumed by several people who confused the species with Calvatia, a puffball genus containing popular edible members. Of the five who ate the fungus, two had gastrointestinal symptoms including stomachache, flatulence, and diarrhea; the other three did not have symptoms.[38] The large European bird great bustard (Otis tarda) has been recorded feeding on the puffball.[45]

Because of their thick outer peridium, Mycenastrum corium puffballs can withstand hard blows without breaking, and children have used them as replacements for balls. The puffballs have also been used medicinally in Mexico as a hemostatic, as a throat and lung tonic, and for their purported anti-inflammatory properties.[38]

Puffball maturation

Mature fruit body found in Australia

The manner in which the puffball splits open (dehisces) has been described by 19th-century American mycologist William Henry Long. The thick and leathery peridium of the mature puffball remains unopened for several months without splitting. After several alternating cycles of wetting and drying, fissures develop across the top. These fissures usually radiate from a common center near the top of the fruit body and finally produce very irregular star-like teeth. In time, the entire upper half of the puffball is open and exposed during dry weather. In this condition, the spores are blown out by the wind and widely distributed. During every rainy spell the puffball promptly closes only to open again when dry weather returns. At each alternate opening and closing the peridium is split more and more, until finally it is expanded into a flat shape, or even curls backward. In the puffball, the outer layer of the peridium comprises cells arranged so that when wet they adsorb water and expand, thus closing the top of the puffball. Upon drying, these outer cells lose water and gradually shrink, thus producing an unequal tension between the outer and inner cells of the peridium. This tension causes the irregular star-like pieces of the peridium to gradually separate and curve outward, thus opening the top of the puffball during dry weather.[46]

Ecology and distribution

Mycenastrum corium is a saprobic species, consuming dead organic debris.[47] It is usually found fruiting on the ground singly, scattered, in rings, or in clusters,[41] but is can also grow underground.[39] Fruiting occurs at low elevations in groups in open habitats dominated by sagebrush and saltbrush, or in grassy or shrubby wet areas in dry prairie.[40] Other reported habitats include old haystacks, on silage, and roadsides.[48] Mature fruit bodies can be broken loose from attachment to the substrate and be rolled around by wind, similar to some Bovista puffballs.[43] Although the species is not frequently encountered, it has been suggested that this is because it grows in locations "rather seldom visited by mycologists".[39] M. corium could be a useful indicator species for climate change.[49]

The puffball is widely distributed, and has been recorded in Africa (Zimbabwe),[50] Asia (China,[51] India,[16] Iran,[52] Mongolia,[53] and Yemen[54]), South America (Argentina, Chile and Uruguay), North America, Australia, and New Zealand.[16] In Europe it is found in southern Scandinavia[55] and is widespread to the south of the continent.[56] Although it was reported in Scotland in 2010 (its first appearance on the British mainland), the grassland habitat where it was found has since become heavily eroded, and may be unsuitable for future appearances of the species.[57] Mycenastrum corium is a threatened species in Europe, and is listed as vulnerable in the Regional Red List of Poland.[48] In North America, it is most common in western regions of the United States and Canada,[14][17] but it has also been recorded in eastern Canada.[58] Poorly known in Mexico, it has been recorded from Baja California,[59] Chihuahua,[60] Nuevo León, San Luis Potosi,[61] Sonora,[62] Mexico City.[38] The variety M. corium var. diabolicum occurs in Sub-Saharan Africa, tropical Asia, the Caribbean, and South America.[16]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 "Mycenastrum Desv. 1842". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. http://www.mycobank.org/MycoTaxo.aspx?Link=T&Rec=19225. 
  2. ↑ "Mycenastrum corium (Guers.) Desv. 1842". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. http://www.mycobank.org/BioloMICS.aspx?Table=Mycobank&Rec=16796&Fields=All. 
  3. ↑ Czernajew BM. (1845). "Nouveaux cryptogames de l'Ukraine et quelques mots sur la flore de ce pays" (in fr). Bulletin de la Société impériale des Naturalistes de Moscou 18 (2): 132–57. 
  4. ↑ Schulzer von Müggenburg S. (1876). "Verhandlungen der k. k. zoolgisch-botanischen Gesellschaft in Wien 1875" (in de). Hedwigia 16: 44–8. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/484374. 
  5. ↑ De Candolle AP, Lamarck, J-B. (1805) (in fr). Flore Française, ou Description succincte de toutes les Plantes qui croissent naturellement en France: disposée selon une nouvelle Méthode d'Analyse, et précédée par un exposé des Principes élémentaires de la Botanique. Augmenté du. 2 (3rd ed.). Paris, France: Desray. p. 598. https://books.google.com/books?id=PoNIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA598. 
  6. ↑ Duby J. (1830) (in la). Botanicon Gallicum. 2 (2nd ed.). Paris, France: Desray. pp. 852–3. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/5763266. 
  7. ↑ Fries EM. (1849). "Fungi Natalenses" (in la). Kongliga Svenska Vetenskapsakademiens Handlingar 1848: 121–54. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/107449#page/127/mode/1up. 
  8. ↑ Desvaux NA. (1842). "Sur le genre Mycenastrum" (in fr). Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Botanique 17 (2): 143–7. http://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/spa/Libro.php?Libro=2206. 
  9. ↑ Zeller SM. (1948). "Notes on certain Gasteromycetes, including two new orders". Mycologia 40 (6): 639–68. doi:10.2307/3755316. PMID 18102856. http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59350/0040/006/0639.htm. 
  10. ↑ "The Lycoperdales. A molecular approach to the systematics of some gasteroid mushrooms". Mycologia 93 (5): 947–57. 2001. doi:10.2307/3761759. http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59350/0093/005/0947.htm. 
  11. ↑ "Phylogenetic relationships among species and genera of Lycoperdaceae based on ITS and LSU sequence data from north European taxa". Mycological Research 112 (1): 4–22. 2008. doi:10.1016/j.mycres.2007.10.018. PMID 18207380. 
  12. ↑ Dictionary of the Fungi (10th ed.). Wallingford, UK: CAB International. 2008. p. 446. ISBN 978-0-85199-826-8. 
  13. ↑ Crichton G. (1973). "A further note on the leathery puffball". Victorian Naturalist 90 (5): 132–3. ISSN 0042-5184. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Gibson I.. "Mycenastrum corium (Guers.) Desv.". Matchmaker: Mushrooms of the Pacific Northwest. E-Flora BC: Electronic Atlas of the Flora of British Columbia. Lab for Advanced Spatial Analysis, Department of Geography, University of British Columbia. http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Mycenastrum%20corium&lifeform=14. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 A Field Guide to Mushrooms: North America. Peterson Field Guides. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin. 1987. p. 358. ISBN 0395910900. https://archive.org/details/fieldguidetomush00mckn_960. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 "South American Gasteromycetes. The genera Gastropila, Lanopila and Mycenastrum". Mycologia 65 (4): 779–94. 1973. doi:10.2307/3758517. http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59350/0065/004/0779.htm. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 "A new subspecies of Mycenastrum corium from Colorado". Mycologia 97 (2): 530–3. 2005. doi:10.3852/mycologia.97.2.530. PMID 16396359. http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59350/0097/002/0530.htm. 
  18. ↑ "Search page. Search by "name"; search term="Mycenastrum"". Index Fungorum. CAB International. http://www.indexfungorum.org/names/Names.asp. 
  19. ↑ "Homotypic Synonyms: Mycenastrum beccarii Pass., (1875)". Index Fungorum. CAB International. http://www.indexfungorum.org/names/HomoSpecies.asp?RecordID=148235. 
  20. ↑ Cooke MC. (1887). "Some exotic fungi". Grevillea 16 (78): 25–6. http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59649/0016/078/0025.htm. 
  21. ↑ "Mycenastrum bovistoides Cooke & Massee, Grevillea, 16 (78): 26, 1887". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. http://www.mycobank.org/BioloMICS.aspx?Table=Mycobank&Rec=234084&Fields=All. 
  22. ↑ Montagne JPFC. (1843). "Quatrième Centurie de plantes cellulaires exotiques nouvelles, Décades VIII, IX et X" (in fr). Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Botanique 20: 353–79. http://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/spa/Libro.php?Libro=2209. 
  23. ↑ Patouillard NT. (1899). "Champignons de la Guadeloupe" (in fr). Bulletin de la Société Mycologique de France 15: 191–209. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/34205312. 
  24. ↑ "Mycenastrum coelatum Pat., Bulletin de la Société Mycologique de France, 15: 204, 1899". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. http://www.mycobank.org/BioloMICS.aspx?Table=Mycobank&Rec=243680&Fields=All. 
  25. ↑ de Seynes J. (1886). "Un nouvelle espèce du Mycenastrum" (in fr). Bulletin de la Société botanique de France 33: 78–80. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/614269. 
  26. ↑ Léveillé JH. (1844). "Champignons exotiques" (in fr). Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Botanique. 3 2: 167–221. https://archive.org/stream/annalesdesscienc02bota#page/166/mode/2up. 
  27. ↑ "Mycenastrum fragile Lév., Annales des Sciences Naturelles Botanique, 2: 221, 1844". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. http://www.mycobank.org/BioloMICS.aspx?Table=Mycobank&Rec=243548&Fields=All. 
  28. ↑ Montagne JPFC. (1847). "Enumeratio fungorum quos a cl. Drège in Africa meridionali collectos" (in fr). Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Botanique. III 7: 166–81. https://books.google.com/books?id=BX85AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA166. 
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Bory de St.-Vincent, ed (1849) (in fr). Exploration scientifique de l'Algérie. 1–10. pp. 361–400. https://books.google.com/books?id=uEj7CWVjYh8C&pg=PA386. 
  30. ↑ Cooke MC. (1884). "Saccardo". Grevillea 13 (65): 6–7. http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59649/0013/065/0006.htm. 
  31. ↑ "Mycenastrum lycoperdoides Cooke, Grevillea, 13 (65): 6, 1884". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. http://www.mycobank.org/BioloMICS.aspx?Table=Mycobank&Rec=315862&Fields=All. 
  32. ↑ Patouillard NT. (1902). "Champignons de la Guadeloupe, recueillis par le R.P. Duss" (in fr). Bulletin de la Société Mycologique de France 18 (2): 171–86. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/34217724. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 "New species of fungi". Journal of Mycology 1 (7): 88–93. 1885. doi:10.2307/3752368. http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59805/0001/007/0088.htm. 
  34. ↑ Cooke MC. (1887). "Australasian fungi". Grevillea 16 (77): 30–3. http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59649/0016/078/0030.htm. 
  35. ↑ Berkeley MJ. (1843). "Enumeration of fungi, collected by Herr Zeyher in Uitenhage". London Journal of Botany 2: 507–27. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/783789. 
  36. ↑ Berkeley MJ. (1845). "Decades of fungi. Decades III–VII. Australian fungi". London Journal of Botany 4: 42–73. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/773196. 
  37. ↑ Peck CH. (1881). "New species of fungi". Botanical Gazette 6 (7): 239–41. doi:10.1086/325491. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/221333. 
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 38.3 "Mycenastrum corium and gastrointestinal mycetism in México". Mycotaxon 130 (3): 641–645. 2015. doi:10.5248/130.641. 
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 "A contribution to the morphology and ecology of Mycenastrum corium (Agaricales)". Acta Mycologica 41 (1): 73–8. 2006. doi:10.5586/am.2006.011. http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59731/0041/001/0073.htm. 
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 North American Mushrooms: A Field Guide to Edible and Inedible Fungi. Guilford, Connecticut: Falcon Guide. 2006. p. 455. ISBN 0762731095. 
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 "Mycenastrum corium". California Fungi. http://www.mykoweb.com/CAF/species/Mycenastrum_corium.html. 
  42. ↑ Gasteromycetes: Morphological and Developmental Features, with Keys to the Orders, Families, and Genera. Eureka: Mad River Press. 1988. p. 36. ISBN 0-916422-74-7. 
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Smith AH. (1951). Puffballs and their Allies in Michigan. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. pp. 80–1. http://quod.lib.umich.edu/f/fung1tc/agk0823.0001.001/92?page=root;size=100;view=image. 
  44. ↑ De Roman M. (2010). "The Contribution of Wild Fungi to Diet, Income and Health: A World Review". Progress in Mycology. pp. 327–48. doi:10.1007/978-90-481-3713-8_12. ISBN 978-90-481-3712-1. 
  45. ↑ Kovacs G. (1998). "Pofeteggombat fogyaszto tuzokok (Otis tarda)" (in hu). Tuzok 3 (4): 157. ISSN 1416-020X. 
  46. ↑ Long WH. (1930). "The dehiscence of Mycenastrum corium". Mycologia 22 (3): 103–5. doi:10.2307/3753756. http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59350/0022/003/0103.htm. 
  47. ↑ Kuo M. (October 2008). "Mycenastrum corium". MushroomExpert.com. http://www.mushroomexpert.com/mycenastrum_corium.html. 
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 "Mycenastrum corium (Fungi, Agaricales) in Poland". Polish Botanical Journal 49 (1): 63–6. 2004. http://www.ib-pan.krakow.pl/pubs-pdf/Polish%20Botanical%20Journal/2004/Pbj49-1_s063-66.pdf. 
  49. ↑ "Die Verbreitung und Ökologie ausgewählter Makromyceten Deutschlands" (in de). Beiheft zur Zeitschrift für Mykologie 69 (2): 177–286. 2003. http://www.dgfm-ev.de/sites/default/files/ZM692177Doerfelt.pdf. 
  50. ↑ "Some interesting gasteroid fungi from Zimbabwe". Kew Bulletin 54 (3): 739–46. 1999. doi:10.2307/4110870. 
  51. ↑ The Macrofungus Flora of China's Guangdong Province (Chinese University Press). New York: Columbia University Press. 1993. p. 226. ISBN 962-201-556-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=0cAered-vqYC&pg=PA552. 
  52. ↑ Saber M. (1995). "New records of Aphyllophorales and Gasteromycetes for Iran" (in ar). Iranian Journal of Plant Pathology 31 (1–4): 19–23. ISSN 0006-2774. 
  53. ↑ "内蒙和吉林马勃的产地对比分析" (in zh). Chinese Journal of Applied Chemistry 29 (4): 477–482. 2012. 
  54. ↑ "Basidiomycetes and larger ascomycetes from Yemen". Feddes Repertorium 115 (7–8): 547–561. 2004. doi:10.1002/fedr.200411053. 
  55. ↑ Nordic Macromycetes. 3. Copenhagen, Denmark: Nordsvamp. 1997. 
  56. ↑ British Puffballs, Earthstars and Stinkhorns: an Account of the British Gasteroid Fungi. Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens. 1995. p. 255. ISBN 0947643818. 
  57. ↑ McNeil D. (2013). "Some noteworthy British Gasteromycete records". Field Mycology 14 (1): 24–30. doi:10.1016/j.fldmyc.2012.12.008. 
  58. ↑ Sparling J. (2007). "Bovista, Mycenastrum, and other puffballs of the Carden Alvar". The Mycophile 48 (1): 1, 6, 15. http://namyco.org/images/pdf_files/MycoJanFeb07.pdf. 
  59. ↑ "Contribution to the knowledge of the Gasteromycetes of Baja California Peninsula Mexico" (in es). Brenesia (33): 51–60. 1990. ISSN 0304-3711. 
  60. ↑ "Contribution to the study of gasteroid and secotioid fungi of Chihuahua, Mexico". Mycotaxon 112: 291–315. 2010. doi:10.5248/112.291. http://www.uacj.mx/ICB/cqb/DoctoradoCQB/Documents/Dr.%20Marcos%20Lizarraga/Marcos%20Lizarraga1.pdf. 
  61. ↑ "Macromicetos de las zonas áridas de México, II. Gasteromicetos" (in es). Anales del Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Serie Botánica 40: 1–97. 1969. 
  62. ↑ "Composición de gasteromicetos en un gradiente de vegetación en Sonora, México" (in es). Anales del Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Serie Botánica 71 (2): 39–62. http://www.biblioteca.org.ar/libros/91904.pdf. 

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