Biology:Genetic history of West Africa

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Short description: West African genetic history


The genetic history of West Africa encompasses the genetic history of the people of West Africa. The Sahara served as a trans-regional passageway and place of dwelling for people in Africa during various humid phases[1][2][3] and periods throughout the history of Africa.[4][5]

Archaic Human DNA

Archaic traits found in human fossils of West Africa (e.g., Iho Eleru fossils, which dates to 13,000 BP) and Central Africa (e.g., Ishango fossils, which dates between 25,000 BP and 20,000 BP) may have developed as a result of admixture between archaic humans and modern humans or may be evidence of late-persisting early modern humans.[6] While Denisovan and Neanderthal ancestry in non-Africans outside of Africa are more certain, archaic human ancestry in Africans is less certain and is too early to be established with certainty.[6]

Ancient DNA

As of 2017, human ancient DNA has not been found in the region of West Africa.[7] As of 2020, human ancient DNA has not been forthcoming in the region of West Africa.[8]

In 4000 BP (or even earlier during the Mesolithic), there may have been a population that traversed from Africa (e.g., West Africa or West-Central Africa), through the Strait of Gibraltar, into the Iberian peninsula, where admixing between Africans and Iberians (e.g., of northern Portugal, of southern Spain ) occurred. Based on a small trace presence of sub-Saharan African components in select samples from Iberia, and the discovery of a mitogenome L2a1 found in one individual, while all others belonged to European mitochondrial haplogroups.[9]

In Granada, a Muslim (Moor) of the Cordoba Caliphate,[10] who was of haplogroups E1b1a1 and H1+16189,[11] as well as estimated to date between 900 CE and 1000 CE, and a Morisco,[10] who was of haplogroup L2e1,[11] as well as estimated to date between 1500 CE and 1600 CE, were both found to be of Sub-Saharan West African (i.e., Gambian) and Iberian descent.[10]

Y-Chromosomal DNA

Eight male individuals from Guinea Bissau, two male individuals from Niger, one male individual from Mali, and one male individual from Cabo Verde carried haplogroup A1a.[12]

As a result of haplogroup D0, a basal branch of haplogroup DE, being found in three Nigerian men, it may be the case that haplogroup DE, as well as its sublineages D0 and E, originated in Africa.[13]

As of 19,000 years ago, Africans, bearing haplogroup E1b1a-V38, likely traversed across the Sahara, from east to west.[14] E1b1a1-M2 likely originated in West Africa or Central Africa.[15]

Mitochondrial DNA

Further information: Biology:Haplogroup L2 (mtDNA)

Between 75,000 BP and 60,000 BP, Africans bearing haplogroup L3 emerged in East Africa and eventually migrated into and became present in modern West Africans, Central Africans, and non-Africans.[16] Amid the Holocene, including the Holocene Climate Optimum in 8000 BP, Africans bearing haplogroup L2 spread within West Africa and Africans bearing haplogroup L3 spread within East Africa.[16] As the largest migration since the Out of Africa migration, migration from Sub-Saharan Africa toward the North Africa occurred, by West Africans, Central Africans, and East Africans, resulting in migrations into Europe and Asia; consequently, Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA was introduced into Europe and Asia.[16] During the early period of the Holocene, 50% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA was introduced into North Africa by West Africans and the other 50% was introduced by East Africans.[16] During the modern period, a greater number of West Africans introduced Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA into North Africa than East Africans.[16] Between 15,000 BP and 7000 BP, 86% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA was introduced into Southwest Asia by East Africans, largely in the region of Arabia, which constitute 50% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA in modern Southwest Asia.[16] In the modern period, 68% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA was introduced by East Africans and 22% was introduced by West Africans, which constitutes 50% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA in modern Southwest Asia.[16] During the early period of the Holocene, Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA was introduced into Europe, mostly in Iberia.[16] West Africans probably migrated, across Sahelian Africa, North Africa, and the Strait of Gibraltar, into Europe, and introduced 63% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA.[16] During the modern period, West Africans introduced 75% of Sub-Saharan African mitochondrial DNA into Iberia and other parts of Europe, possibly by sea voyage.[16]

Around 18,000 BP, Mende people, along with Gambian peoples, grew in population size.[17]

In 15,000 BP, Niger-Congo speakers may have migrated from the Sahelian region of West Africa, along the Senegal River, and introduced L2a1 into North Africa, resulting in modern Mauritanian peoples and Berbers of Tunisia inheriting it.[18]

Between 11,000 BP and 10,000 BP, Yoruba people and Esan people grew in population size.[17]

As early as 11,000 years ago, Sub-Saharan West Africans, bearing macrohaplogroup L (e.g., L1b1a11, L1b1a6a, L1b1a8, L1b1a9a1, L2a1k, L3d1b1a), may have migrated through North Africa and into Europe, mostly into southern Europe (e.g., Iberia).[19]

Autosomal DNA

During the early period of the Holocene, in 9000 BP, Khoisan-related peoples admixed with the ancestors of the Igbo people, possibly in the western Sahara.[20][21]

Between 2000 BP and 1500 BP, Nilo-Saharan-speakers may have migrated across the Sahel, from East Africa into West Africa, and admixed with Niger-Congo-speaking Berom people.[22] In 710 CE, West African-related populations (e.g., Niger-Congo-speaking Berom people, Bantu-speakers) and East African-related populations (Nilo-Saharan-speaking Ethiopians, Nilo-Saharan-speaking Chadians) admixed with one another in northern Nigeria and northern Cameroon.[23]

Fan et al. (2019) found that the Fulani people show genetic affinity to isolated Afroasiatic-speaking groups in Eastern Africa, specifically Omotic-speakers such as the Aari people. While the Fulani have nearly exclusive indigenous African ancestry (defined by West and East African ancestry), they also show traces of West-Eurasian-like admixture, supporting an ancestral homeland somewhere in North or Eastern Africa, and westwards expansion during the Neolithic, possibly caused by the arrival and expansion of West-Eurasian-related groups.[24] Fan et al. (2023) found that the Fulani, who have 50% Amhara-related and 50% Tikari-related ancestry as well as occupy regions such as West Africa, Central Africa, and the Sudan as nomadic herders, may have initially been Afroasiatic speakers that subsequently underwent language replacement and became Niger-Congo speakers.[25]

Medical DNA

The genomes of Africans commonly found to undergo adaptation are regulatory DNA, and many cases of adaptation found among Africans relate to diet, physiology, and evolutionary pressures from pathogens.[26] Throughout Sub-Saharan Africa, genetic adaptation (e.g., rs334 mutation, Duffy blood group, increased rates of G6PD deficiency, sickle cell disease) to malaria has been found among Sub-Saharan Africans, which may have initially developed in 7300 BP.[26] Sub-Saharan Africans have more than 90% of the Duffy-null genotype.[27]

Pediculus

During the Copper Age and early Islamic era of ancient Israel, West Africans may have migrated into ancient Israel and introduced head louse from West Africa.[28]

Sickle Cell

Amid the Green Sahara, the mutation for sickle cell originated in the Sahara[14] or in the northwest forest region of western Central Africa (e.g., Cameroon)[14][29] by at least 7,300 years ago,[14][29] though possibly as early as 22,000 years ago.[30][29] The ancestral sickle cell haplotype to modern haplotypes (e.g., Cameroon/Central African Republic and Benin/Senegal haplotypes) may have first arose in the ancestors of modern West Africans, bearing haplogroups E1b1a1-L485 and E1b1a1-U175 or their ancestral haplogroup E1b1a1-M4732.[14] West Africans (e.g., Yoruba and Esan of Nigeria), bearing the Benin sickle cell haplotype, may have migrated through the northeastern region of Africa into the western region of Arabia.[14] West Africans (e.g., Mende of Sierra Leone), bearing the Senegal sickle cell haplotype,[31][14] may have migrated into Mauritania (77% modern rate of occurrence) and Senegal (100%); they may also have migrated across the Sahara, into North Africa, and from North Africa, into Southern Europe, Turkey, and a region near northern Iraq and southern Turkey.[31] Some may have migrated into and introduced the Senegal and Benin sickle cell haplotypes into Basra, Iraq, where both occur equally.[31] West Africans, bearing the Benin sickle cell haplotype, may have migrated into the northern region of Iraq (69.5%), Jordan (80%), Lebanon (73%), Oman (52.1%), and Egypt (80.8%).[31]

Schistosomes

According to Steverding (2020), while not definite: Near the African Great Lakes, schistosomes (e.g., S. mansoni, S. haematobium) underwent evolution.[32] Subsequently, there was an expansion alongside the Nile.[32] From Egypt, the presence of schistosomes may have expanded, via migratory Yoruba people, into Western Africa.[32] Thereafter, schistosomes may have expanded, via migratory Bantu peoples, into the rest of Sub-Saharan Africa (e.g., Southern Africa, Central Africa).[32]

Thalassemia

Through pathways taken by caravans, or via travel amid the Almovarid period, a population (e.g., Sub-Saharan West Africans) may have introduced the –29 (A → G) β-thalassemia mutation (found in notable amounts among African-Americans) into the North African region of Morocco.[33]

Domesticated Animal DNA

While the Niger-Congo migration may have been from West Africa into Kordofan, possibly from Kordofan, Sudan, Niger-Congo speakers accompanied by undomesticated helmeted guineafowls, may have traversed into West Africa, domesticated the helmeted guineafowls by 3000 BCE, and via the Bantu expansion, traversed into other parts of Sub-Saharan Africa (e.g., Central Africa, East Africa, Southern Africa).[34]

References

  1. ↑ Osborne, Anne H. (October 2008). "A humid corridor across the Sahara for the migration of early modern humans out of Africa 120,000 years ago". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105 (43): 16444–16447. doi:10.1073/pnas.0804472105. PMID 18936490. Bibcode: 2008PNAS..10516444O. 
  2. ↑ Drake, Nick; Breeze, Paul (2016). "Climate Change and Modern Human Occupation of the Sahara from MIS 6-2". Africa from MIS 6-2. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology. Africa from MIS 6-2. pp. 103–122. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-7520-5_6. ISBN 978-94-017-7519-9. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-017-7520-5_6. 
  3. ↑ El-Shenawy, Mohammed I. (2018). "Speleothem evidence for the greening of the Sahara and its implications for the early human dispersal out of sub-Saharan Africa". Quaternary Science Reviews 188: 67–76. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.03.016. Bibcode: 2018QSRv..188...67E. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277379117307436. 
  4. ↑ Scheele, Judith (Aug 2016). Crossroads Regions: The Sahara. Oxford Handbooks Online. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935369.013.18. ISBN 978-0-19-993536-9. https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935369.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199935369-e-18. 
  5. ↑ Wippel, Steffen (2020). "The Sahara as a Bridge, Not a Barrier: An Essay and Book Review on Recent Transregional Perspectives". Neue Politische Literatur 65 (3): 449–472. doi:10.1007/s42520-020-00318-y. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 "Origins of modern human ancestry". Nature 590 (7845): 229–237. February 2021. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03244-5. PMID 33568824. Bibcode: 2021Natur.590..229B. 
  7. ↑ Scerri, Eleanor (26 October 2017). "The Stone Age Archaeology of West Africa". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History. Oxford University Press. p. 1. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.137. ISBN 9780190277734. OCLC 1013546425. https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:1442d1c1-7f76-454d-97db-8fd52a4c6c1e/files/m02a1cd8d0c2ef8eb3ffee57a58c4b335. 
  8. ↑ Jeong, Choongwon (2020). "Current Trends in Ancient DNA Study: Beyond Human Migration in and Around Europe". The Handbook of Mummy Studies. Springer. pp. 1–16. doi:10.1007/978-981-15-1614-6_10-1. ISBN 978-981-15-1614-6. OCLC 1182512815. https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-981-15-1614-6_10-1. 
  9. ↑ González-Fortes, G. (2019). "A western route of prehistoric human migration from Africa into the Iberian Peninsula". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 286 (1895): 20182288. doi:10.1098/rspb.2018.2288. PMID 30963949. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Olalde, Iñigo (March 27, 2019). "Supplementary Materials for The genomic history of the Iberian Peninsula over the past 8000 years". Science 363 (6432): 1230–1234. doi:10.1126/science.aav4040. PMID 30872528. Bibcode: 2019Sci...363.1230O. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Olalde, Iñigo (March 27, 2019). "The genomic history of the Iberian Peninsula over the past 8000 years". Science 363 (6432): Table S1. doi:10.1126/science.aav4040. PMID 30872528. PMC 6436108. Bibcode: 2019Sci...363.1230O. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6436108/bin/NIHMS1019025-supplement-Supplementary_Tables.xlsx. 
  12. ↑ Batini, Chiara (September 2011). "Supplementary Data: Signatures of the Preagricultural Peopling Processes in Sub-Saharan Africa as Revealed by the Phylogeography of Early Y Chromosome Lineages". Molecular Biology and Evolution 28 (9): 2603–2613. doi:10.1093/molbev/msr089. ISSN 0737-4038. OCLC 748733133. PMID 21478374. https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/28/9/2603/1011779#supplementary-data. 
  13. ↑ Haber, Marc (August 2019). "A Rare Deep-Rooting D0 African Y-Chromosomal Haplogroup and Its Implications for the Expansion of Modern Humans Out of Africa". Genetics 212 (4): 1421–1428. doi:10.1534/genetics.119.302368. ISSN 0016-6731. OCLC 8291848146. PMID 31196864. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 Shriner, Daniel; Rotimi, Charles N. (April 2018). "Whole-Genome-Sequence-Based Haplotypes Reveal Single Origin of the Sickle Allele during the Holocene Wet Phase". American Journal of Human Genetics 102 (4): 547–556. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2018.02.003. ISSN 0002-9297. OCLC 7353789016. PMID 29526279. 
  15. ↑ Trombetta, Beniamino (June 2015). "Phylogeographic Refinement and Large Scale Genotyping of Human Y Chromosome Haplogroup E Provide New Insights into the Dispersal of Early Pastoralists in the African Continent". Genome Biology and Evolution 7 (7): 1940–1950. doi:10.1093/gbe/evv118. ISSN 0016-6731. OCLC 8291848146. PMID 26108492. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 16.8 16.9 Sá, Luísa (16 August 2022). "Phylogeography of Sub-Saharan Mitochondrial Lineages Outside Africa Highlights the Roles of the Holocene Climate Changes and the Atlantic Slave Trade". International Journal of Molecular Sciences 23 (16): 9219. doi:10.3390/ijms23169219. ISSN 1661-6596. OCLC 9627558751. PMID 36012483. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Miller, Eleanor F. (August 2018). "Global demographic history of human populations inferred from whole mitochondrial genomes". Royal Society Open Science 5 (8): 180543. doi:10.1098/rsos.180543. OCLC 8582185081. PMID 30225046. Bibcode: 2018RSOS....580543M. 
  18. ↑ Frigi, Sabeh (August 2010). "Ancient local evolution of African mtDNA haplogroups in Tunisian Berber populations". Human Biology 82 (4): 367–384. doi:10.3378/027.082.0402. ISSN 0018-7143. OCLC 4668535228. PMID 21082907. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/47810347. 
  19. ↑ Podgorná, Eliška (November 2013). "The genetic impact of the lake chad basin population in North Africa as documented by mitochondrial diversity and internal variation of the L3e5 haplogroup". Annals of Human Genetics 77 (6): 513–523. doi:10.1111/ahg.12040. ISSN 0003-4800. OCLC 6998015647. PMID 25069842. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ahg.12040. 
  20. ↑ Busby, George BJ (June 21, 2016). "Admixture into and within sub-Saharan Africa". eLife 5: e15266. doi:10.7554/eLife.15266. PMID 27324836. 
  21. ↑ Gurdasani, Deepti (December 3, 2014). "The African Genome Variation Project shapes medical genetics in Africa". Nature 517 (7534): 327–332. doi:10.1038/nature13997. ISSN 0028-0836. OCLC 9018039409. PMID 25470054. Bibcode: 2015Natur.517..327G. 
  22. ↑ Choudhury, Ananyo (October 2020). "High-depth African genomes inform human migration and health". Nature 586 (7831): 741–748. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2859-7. ISSN 0028-0836. OCLC 8691160009. PMID 33116287. Bibcode: 2020Natur.586..741C. 
  23. ↑ Bird, Nancy (March 29, 2023). "Dense sampling of ethnic groups within African countries reveals fine-scale genetic structure and extensive historical admixture". Science Advances 9 (13): eabq2616. doi:10.1126/sciadv.abq2616. ISSN 2375-2548. OCLC 9819554112. PMID 36989356. Bibcode: 2023SciA....9.2616B. 
  24. ↑ Fan, Shaohua; Kelly, Derek E.; Beltrame, Marcia H.; Hansen, Matthew E. B.; Mallick, Swapan; Ranciaro, Alessia; Hirbo, Jibril; Thompson, Simon et al. (2019-04-26). "African evolutionary history inferred from whole genome sequence data of 44 indigenous African populations". Genome Biology 20 (1): 82. doi:10.1186/s13059-019-1679-2. ISSN 1474-760X. PMID 31023338. 
  25. ↑ Fan, Shaohua (March 2, 2023). "Whole-genome sequencing reveals a complex African population demographic history and signatures of local adaptation". Cell 186 (5): 923–939. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2023.01.042. ISSN 0092-8674. OCLC 9791150466. PMID 36868214. PMC 10568978. https://www.cell.com/cell/pdf/S0092-8674(23)00101-0.pdf. 
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Pfennig, Aaron (March 29, 2023). "Evolutionary Genetics and Admixture in African Populations". Genome Biology and Evolution 15 (4): evad054. doi:10.1093/gbe/evad054. OCLC 9817135458. PMID 36987563. PMC 10118306. https://academic.oup.com/gbe/article/15/4/evad054/7092825. 
  27. ↑ Wonkam, Ambroise; Adeyemo, Adebowale (March 8, 2023). "Leveraging our common African origins to understand human evolution and health". Cell Genomics 3 (3): 100278. doi:10.1016/j.xgen.2023.100278. PMID 36950382. PMC 10025516. https://www.cell.com/cell-genomics/pdf/S2666-979X(23)00038-1.pdf. 
  28. ↑ Amanzougaghene, Nadia (October 14, 2016). "High Ancient Genetic Diversity of Human Lice, Pediculus humanus, from Israel Reveals New Insights into the Origin of Clade B Lice". PLOS ONE 11 (10): e0164659. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0164659. PMID 27741281. Bibcode: 2016PLoSO..1164659A. 
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 "Evolutionary history of sickle-cell mutation: implications for global genetic medicine". Human Molecular Genetics 30 (R1): R119–R128. April 2021. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddab004. PMID 33461216. 
  30. ↑ "Recent Adaptive Acquisition by African Rainforest Hunter-Gatherers of the Late Pleistocene Sickle-Cell Mutation Suggests Past Differences in Malaria Exposure". American Journal of Human Genetics 104 (3): 553–561. March 2019. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2019.02.007. PMID 30827499. 
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 "Sickle β-globin haplotypes among patients with sickle cell anemia in Basra, Iraq: A cross-sectional study". Iraqi Journal of Hematology 9 (1): 23. January 2020. doi:10.4103/ijh.ijh_20_19. 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 Steverding, Dietmar (December 2020). "The spreading of parasites by human migratory activities". Virulence 11 (1): 1177–1191. doi:10.1080/21505594.2020.1809963. PMID 32862777. 
  33. ↑ Agouti, Imane (December 2008). "Molecular basis of ß-thalassemia in Morocco: possible origins of the molecular heterogeneity". Genetic Testing 12 (4): 563–568. doi:10.1089/gte.2008.0058. PMID 18976160. https://www.cs.sjsu.edu/~khuri/Rabat_2013/Agouti_2008.pdf. 
  34. ↑ Murunga, Philip (2018). "Mitochondrial DNA D-Loop Diversity of the Helmeted Guinea Fowls in Kenya and Its Implications on HSP70 Gene Functional Polymorphism". BioMed Research International 2018: 1–12. doi:10.1155/2018/7314038. OCLC 8754386965. PMID 30539018. 



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